Wonders of the BRICS World. Part 2: Iranian Miniatures

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Around one thousand years ago, Ferdowsī, a classic figure in Persian literature, created his most famous work, the epic poem Shāh-nāmeh. Our Russian epic, The Russian Tale of Igor’s Campaign, is younger, dating back to the late twelfth century. The only manuscript of The Tale was destroyed by fire in 1812, leading to doubts about its authenticity and sparking a discussion lasting until 2004, whereas numerous remarkable manuscripts of Shāh-nāmeh from different centuries adorn library collections worldwide.

In Islamic culture, the written word holds immense significance, calligraphy being a primary art form. Everything matters: the writing process itself, the character, and the final product. Inscriptions crafted meticulously in various scripts appear not only in books but also in architecture and decorative arts. The early script known as kufi, one of the oldest types of writing that dominated until the twelfth century and played a significant role in the subsequent development of Arabic calligraphy, is characterized by geometric shapes, straight lines, and angularity. It is monumental, gravitating towards clear-cut forms. Over time, six classical styles called sitta emerged, serving as models for calligraphers up until the sixteenth century. A distinctive feature of them consisted in precise rhythmic elements and clarity of letter formation, ensuring ease of reading. These styles include: muhaqqaq (correct, expressive, and clearly defined letters), rayhan (basil-like, a smaller version of muhaqqaq), suls (one to three proportion between curved and linear elements), naskh (copywriting style, cursive form, medium-sized and rounded), tawqi (edict, compact, and joined-up letters), riqa (cursive handwriting).

In Iran, sitta became the foundation for the emergence of talik (suspended) and nastaliq scripts, both characterized by flowing and rounded lines. Calligraphy enthusiasts purchased special albums showcasing samples of these scripts. Proficiency in calligraphy signified noble qualities such as inte lligence, education, and spiritual be auty. Creation of an artistic book re quired collaboration  among calligraphers, illuminators, ornamentalists, and binders. According to Arab sources, decorated manuscripts were already common in pre -Arab Iran during the reign of the Sasanian dy nasty (third-sixth centuries A.D.). Ancient Iranian art absorbed traditions from M esopotamia, Parthia, and Sasanian P ersia without prohibiting figurative representations.

Katibdar meant the head of a book workshop, a distinguished calligrapher or artist. When working on texts, copywriters left spaces for illustrations and ornamental inserts. So, a book could be supplemented with images much later, potentially changing ownership and preferences over time. Cheaper versions utilized stencils similar to those used in western paintings and Russian frescoes, where powder was sprinkled through holes onto paper, allowing points to be connected into outlines.

Pen and brush

The calligrapher’s tool is the kalam or reed pen. Treatises survive detailing how materials should be prepared before writing. For instance, a fourteenth-century treatise advises that “the tip of the kalam must match the length of the big finger’s first phalanx.”

Artists could also use brushes. Paper sheets were initially primed and polished using agate or crystal to create a smooth background. A wet brush would make preliminary sketches, with contours outlined in red or black ink. Afterward, colours could be applied. Miniaturists often employed gold and silver for silhouettes along the margins and depictions of water. So, even after centuries, Iranian miniatures continue to shine with vibrant hues.

Starting from the mid-sixteenth century, in addition to illustration of literary works, independent compositions appeared on separate sheets. Sometimes, entire books were disassembled, and pages containing miniatures were sold separately.

In another system of aesthetic coordinates

The defining characteristic of Iranian miniatures is their decorative nature. Even a brief inspection allows viewers to admire the harmony of resonant tones, whether or not they understand the narrative. Another unique trait is a combination of linearity and silhouette. Line life plays a crucial role in Islamic art, whether in calligraphy, ceramic arabesques, or dome patterns. Miniature leaves follow a carpet-like design principle, leaving almost no empty space. To illustrate diverse settings within a single image, artists employ collage-like techniques: fragmented scenes appear on varied backgrounds separated by distinct ornate frames. Interestingly, book miniatures influenced decorative crafts like carpets and fabrics.

Miniatures adopt flat pictorial interpretations. Unlike European conventions, there is neither three-dimensional space nor volume rendered through chiaroscuro. The world depicted in Iranian miniatures follows a different aesthetic system built on rhythm of elements and line elegance. Artists did not aim to represent reality precisely; instead, they sought inspiration elsewhere.

Yet, despite this divergence, compositions may contain intricate details of daily life. For instance, in a nineteenth-century scene entitled Rest Scene displayed at Moscow’s State Museum of Oriental Art, one character holds figs and a knife, while another kneels nearby observing food preparation. Nearby, players engage in shatranj (an Iranian game akin to chess).

Rustam and Divs

Miniature themes mirror the breadth of Persian literature, ranging from battle scenes, portraits of kings and he roes, romantic encounters, court banquets, genre scenes and depictions of beauties. Of particular interest are episodes from Shāh-nāmeh, divided into mythological, heroic, and historical sections. Heroic tales focus predominantly on the exploits of Rustam, Iran’s greatest hero. Adventures involving divs, mythical creatures akin to demons are particularly fascinating. At New York’s Metropolitan Museum hangs a seventeenth-century manuscript featuring miniatures by Mo´In Mosavvir, who illustrated at least six copies of Shāh-nāmeh.

One composition shows Div Akvan carrying sleeping Rustam. Against a tender lavender backdrop typical of many other scenes in this manuscript, a powerful orange-hued figure of the div, wearing short blue pants, stands out. Incidentally, the chromatic richness of Islamic art captivated European avant-garde painters, notably the Fauves, who embraced colour innovation in the search for new inspirational sources.

Moscow State Museum of Oriental Art holds a nineteenth-century miniature showing Rustam battling a white div. Here, movement becomes the main expressive device, evoking a strange dance-like rhythm.

Bridge between eras

Despite the passing centuries, the tradition of Persian book miniatures has endured. Tehran’s twentieth-century artist Hossein Behzad (1894–1968) exemplifies this continuity. His exquisite, internationally recognized works mesmerize with their refined lines and intricate colour schemes. By reinterpreting the extensive legacy of Iranian artists, blending discoveries from past masters with European innovations like depth perception and chiaroscuro effects, Hossein Behzad revitalized the Persian miniature language. This enchanting realm embodies eastern fairytales and legends narrated by gifted storytellers capable of enticing eastern and western audiences alike.

Schools of Iranian Miniature Painting

Key kitab khanas (book workshops attached to royal libraries) existed in Herat, Tabriz, Shiraz, and Isfahan. Today, HERAT lies in northwestern Afghanistan though, historically, it belonged to the Achaemenid Empire. Its founder, named Alexandria Ariana by the Greeks, is believed to have been Alexander the Great himself. The city flourished under the Timurid rule, especially during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. An important example of this period is the illustrated manuscript of Nizami’s Khamsa, executed for Sultan Shahrukh in the fifteenth century and now housed in the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg.

Kamāl ud-Dīn Behzād, the most renowned representative of the Herat school, achieved recognition as a classic during his life. He led the kitab khana in Herat and later in Tabriz from the 1520s. His compositions are notable for their unusual spatial labyrinths formed by arranging elements across multiple planes, sometimes angled against one another.

First mentioned in the eighth century B.C., TABRIZ experienced significant growth in the thirteenth-fourteenth centuries when its bazaar complex developed. From the mid-thirteenth century, Tabriz served as the capital of Mongol Ilkhanids for nearly a hundred years, during which a local school of miniature painting emerged. Curiously, Chinese influences can be traced in Persian miniatures due to Mongol conquests and trade along the Silk Road.

During the sixteenth century, Tabriz regained its status as capital under the Safavid Dynasty rule, marking another revival and peak era for Tabrizi miniature artistry associated with Kamāl ud-Dīn Behzād. Another prominent Tabriz-based artist was Sultan Muhammad.

SHIRAZ, home to celebrated poets Hafez and Saadi, established its own painting school slightly later than Tabriz, in the fourteenth century. When the Ilkhanids were replaced by an indigenous Iranian dynasty, artists turned to national heritage predating Mongol and Arab influence through illustrations of Shāh-nāmeh. Characteristic features of the Shirazi school include a fondness for gold application and enlarged figures.

Formation of the ISFAHANI school parallels yet another shift in the capital. Settlements within modern-day Isfahan date back to Palaeolithic times, while Ptolemy mentions the city in his Geography. Ibn Sina, known in the West as Avicenna, taught here. The Isfahan’s zenith coincided with the turn of the sixteenth-seventeenth centuries. The city’s scale, beauty and multicultural composition inspired the expression “Isfahani is half the world”. Notable artists of the Isfahani school include Riza-yi´Abbasi (1565–1635), wose genre spectrum spans widely. Beyond traditional heroes, his miniatures portray shepherds, calligraphers, and Portuguese individuals. Intriguingly, his piece called The Lovers, housed in the Metropolitan Museum collection, depicts lovers merging into a single silhouette. The colour palette features soft tones, including pale emerald green and dusty blue garments contrasting subtly with the highlighted marron-brown attire of the female figure. Other works showcase more vivid costume tones set against neutral backgrounds. Riza-yi´Abbasi excelled in capturing nuanced line variations. Among his masterpieces is the diptych Convivial Party from the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg, depicting a young aristocrat relaxing with courtiers. Black accents enhance the vibrancy of the other shades, while the curvaceous poses reinforce an atmosphere of leisure.