When the Ancient Greeks listed the Seven Wonders of the World, they were still unaware of most parts of the globe. So, the famous list is, of course, far from complete. BRICS Business Magazine has decided to fill this historical gap and offer readers its own list of the wonders of the BRICS world – the most impressive creations of human thought, culture and architecture. In this issue, we invite you to get acquainted with India and, in particular, with the masterpieces of its temple architecture.
A notable feature of ancient and medieval Indian architecture is that its temples were not built but carved. That is, the sanctuaries were created like giant statues but, unlike statues, they had interiors. Construction began from the top down. In the 9th century, use of cut stone masonry began in parallel. Temple walls were richly adorned with sculptures. Architecture and sculpture in India are organically and inseparably connected.
In Indian culture, the plastic element plays a very important role. One of the oldest and most famous monuments is a bronze figurine of a dancer, created in the 3rd millennium BC by an anonymous master of the Indus Valley Civilization (Mohenjo-Daro). While the figures of Egyptian pharaohs are frozen for eternity and Sumerian worshippers stand immobile in prayer, the dancer is shown in a very natural, lively pose with her hand on her hip. Her body springs with internal movement. Although the ancient civilization of Mohenjo-Daro perished, movement and dance would be preserved even in architecture in subsequent reincarnations of Buddhist and Hindu India.
In western India lies an amazing Buddhist temple complex. It is worth recalling that no architecture has survived from the pre-Buddhist period of India. The vanished civilization of Mohenjo-Daro, which existed in the 3rd‑2nd millennium BC, was only discovered in the 20th century. Only literary monuments have survived from the period between the fall of Mohenjo-Daro and appearance of the first Buddhist structures: the Vedas, the Mahabharata, and the Ramayana. By the way, from the earliest Homeric period in Greek art, only the Iliad and the Odyssey have come down to us, while no material objects have survived.
Ajanta is an extensive cave complex, an entire city. A picturesque chain of 29 chambers has been carved in the rocks, five of them being chaityas – Buddhist chapels – and 24 viharas – monastic halls surrounded by cells. They belong to different periods: the oldest were created in the 2nd‑1st centuries BC. The main part dates back to the 4th‑7th centuries. It is both a kind of monastic university and a pilgrimage centre. Ajanta is famous for its paintings, which at one time covered the walls, vaults and columns. No paintings have survived from this period in other places. Today, we can see the paintings of 16 caves, depicting both Buddhist and more ancient themes. Yet they include many genre scenes, which is why the paintings of Ajanta are called the “encyclopaedia of life in India in the 5th‑7th centuries.” The most famous one depicts an apsara – a celestial dancer. Notably, again we encounter the image of a dancer, and her ornament flying off to the right indicates the beauty’s rapid movement. Other figures in the wall paintings are also shown moving as if in dance.
One of the largest cave complexes was created not far from Ajanta, in Ellora. Its construction spanned centuries: from the 7th to the 13th century. The temples of Ellora, most of which are dedicated to Hindu deities, have very complex forms and large inner courtyards. The sanctuary halls themselves are carved 40 metres into the rocks. There is a lot of sculpture here, and the reliefs virtually cover the inner walls. One temple, Kailasanatha, was built in the 8th century and dedicated to the lord of Mount Kailash. That is where Shiva resides, at the summit of the world mountain. Kailasanatha consists of three parts, including halls, porticos, galleries and statues. A curious find lies inside: a plate bearing the inscription: “Oh, how could I have made such a thing without magic?”
One feature of India is religious tolerance. Religions here replaced one another peacefully. This is explained by the ancient concept of the chain of reincarnations: new gods are perceived as incarnations of old deities. That is why there is an image of the Vedic god Indra in Ajanta while, in Ellora, Buddhist, Hindu and Jain sanctuaries coexist.
In southern India, on the ocean shore, linking the elements of earth and water, lies another famous temple complex. Like Ajanta and the temples of Ellora, Mahabalipuram is on the UNESCO World Heritage List (India has a total of 44 such sites). This complex of structures is located not in the rocks but in an open area. The Hindu temples of Mahabalipuram are carved out of boulders and rocks: ten temples and eight rathas. Rathas (from the word “chariot”) are monolithic sanctuaries imitating various wooden structures. They have interiors but the space inside is very small. All rathas have a distinctive appearance. Dharmaraja Ratha is a ratha with a cube at its base, followed by a tiered pyramid. Arjuna Ratha replicates a rural hut. Bhima Ratha reproduces a type of two-storey, vaulted structure. The original dedications of these temples have not survived. We know them according to later dedications to epic heroes. Huge figures of freely roaming sacred animals – lions, elephants and bulls stand between the rathas.
The Mahabalipuram complex includes the grand relief Descent of the Ganges depicting the myth of the transfer of the sacred river from heaven to the human world on earth. People had long begged the gods to send them water. Finally, Shiva, who had the Ganges hidden in his hair, released the stream to the earth. Notably, in ancient times, the relief served as a backdrop for a kind of theatrical religious performance. The relief, striking in size at 27 × 9 metres, consists of a highly complex composition: all beings – people, animals with their young, even spirits – strive towards the water. The triumph of life in a common impulse. The sculptors managed to play with the natural unevenness of the surface: in a hollow, they placed the spot from which the river flowed and an image of snakes. During rains, water would accumulate there and the tails of the snakes created an illusion of a moving river.
The most famous component of the complex is the Shiva temple on the shore. At one time its towers served as a lighthouse. Hinduism, which originates from Brahmanism, venerates a trinity – the Trimurti of key gods: Brahma – creator of the world, Vishnu – preserver and Shiva – destroyer of the world. By destroying the world in dance, he creates the cycle of the universe. And, as long as Shiva dances, the world exists. His dance regulates the world order (once again, note how important dance is in Indian culture). According to one legend, Shiva’s dance convinced 10,000 hostile ascetics of his supremacy. The image of Shiva echoes the Vedic Rudra – the god of natural destructive forces directed against evil. Moreover, “Shiva”, meaning “bringer of happiness”, was one of the epithets of Rudra, which later became an independent name of the deity. Shiva has many functions: he commands music and dance, animals. But he is terrible in anger, capable of sending diseases. He inspires fear not only in people but also in gods and demons. Shiva has 1,008 (!) names or epithets. He is “lord of the mountains”, the “great lord”, “wearer of the Ganges” and the “three-eyed.” According to legend, the third eye opened when Parvati, his wife, approached from behind and covered his eyes with her hands. An important symbol in Hinduism is associated with the cult of Shiva – the linga (lingam), embodying the male principle. When the linga is depicted next to the yoni – the symbol of the female principle – it signifies unity of the male and female.
This is one of the largest temple complexes dating back to mediaeval India, built in the 10th‑11th centuries and combining Jainism and Hinduism. The complex is also on the UNESCO World Heritage List. The temples, forming three groups, are built on a high platform. The complex originally included 80 temples but only 25 have survived, the rest having been destroyed during the Mongol invasion. All the temples are of the northern type. The differences between the north and south became apparent at the turn of the 9th‑10th centuries. In the south, a temple was crowned with a pyramidal tower, originating from the rathas and the Shiva temple of Mahabalipuram. In the north, the towers had curvilinear outlines, resembling a corn cob. The towers are topped by a ring of amalaka – a “lotus fruit.”
The most significant temple in the complex is the Kandariya Mahadeva. All its parts are on a single axis and a single plinth. Closely adjoining each other, the entrance, vestibule, hall and sanctuary form an ascending diagonal. Each part is marked by its own tower. In Khajuraho, Indian sculpture reached its culmination. The Kandariya Mahadeva Temple alone has over 220 figures inside and 640 outside! The sculpture of Khajuraho, perceived from a distance as a pattern, is known not only for the carvers’ amazing skill but also for its erotic themes. In Hinduism, the human body is not a vessel of sin but is as sacred as all of nature.
This temple was built in Delhi in the 1930s. At that time, it was the largest Hindu sanctuary in the city. The temple is dedicated to the goddess of happiness, wealth, fertility and beauty, Vishnu’s wife. In each new incarnation, the couple meets again. According to one myth, the goddess appeared at the very beginning of creation, emerging from the water in a lotus blossom.
The temple was built with money from Ghanshyamdas Birla (1894–1983), which is why it is also called the Birla Temple. Birla was a close friend of Mahatma Gandhi. Yet, Gandhi only agreed to open the Lakshmi Temple after being promised that it would be accessible to people of all castes, including untouchables. In fact, this was one of the first temples they were allowed to enter.
The architect of the structure was Sri Chandra Chatterjee. Chatterjee insisted on the need to follow national traditions in modern architecture without rejecting new technologies. So, the interior of the building should be modern but the exterior should be designed in the Indian spirit. A combination of elements from different regions and schools is permissible.
The Lakshmi Temple has a clear composition. The dominant feature is the shikhara towers, associated with the temples of Orissa. The shikhara is an image of the sacred mountain Meru, the centre of the world, where Brahma resides and where Indra’s paradise is located. The temple was built using marble, sandstone and limestone. The walls are covered with reliefs carved by a hundred artisans. Inside, the main sanctuary is dedicated to Lakshmi, while additional ones are dedicated to Buddha, Shiva, Krishna and Ganesha. The elephant-headed god Ganesha, son of Shiva, god of wisdom and remover of obstacles, is one of the most revered gods in India. Ganesha patronizes art and literature.
This is one of the youngest architectural landmarks in Delhi. The temple was only built in 1986. The lotus flower is found in both Buddhism and Hinduism but this temple belongs to the Bahá’í Faith, which asserts the unity of God. The Bahá’í Faith emerged in the 19th century. Mírzá Husayn-`Alí Núrí (1817–1892) proclaimed himself the last world prophet after Adam, Krishna, Zoroaster, Buddha, Moses, Christ, Muhammad and the Báb. The idea of the Bahá’i ís: unity of religions, humanity, equality of people and genders. Bahá’í temples can be visited by people of any faith, race or nationality.
The source of inspiration for the architect, Fariborz Sahba, who travelled extensively throughout India before creating the project, was the Sydney Opera House. But the “sails” of the opera house were transformed into 27 (9 × 3) petals. Each element of the temple is repeated nine times. For the cladding, 10,000 m² of Greek marble, polished in Italy, were used. The construction was carried out in partnership with the London firm Flint & Neill, consulting on engineering issues. The contractor was the big Indian company ECC Construction Group of Larsen & Toubro Limited. Around the temple, built in the form of a blooming lotus flower, are nine pools symbolizing floating petals. They can be walked around via paths and bridges. In addition to their aesthetic function, the pools help ventilate the building.
Visitors enter the hall through nine entrances, symbolizing openness to all. Interestingly, in the interior, at the top of the dome, a lotus-like ornament is born, echoing Muslim decor. In Bahá’í temples, there are no altars, internal decorations, paintings or sculptures. But there is a space under the dome where everyone is equal. The inner hall is designed for 1,300 people. In addition to the temple itself, the complex includes an additional building with a library, conference hall, administrative and information blocks, and an educational centre opened in 2017.
Akshardham is another architectural monument in Delhi – the largest Hindu temple in the world. It was built very recently, in 2005. Essentially, it is the result of Hindus reflecting on their worldview, cultural history and architecture. The word itself roughly translates as “eternal abode”. The centric, nine-domed structure impresses with its mesmerizingly beautiful composition: five main domes and four additional ones frame the central dome. On four sides are unique porticos. The façade of the building is multi-layered, unfolding like curtains in a theatre. The statistics are also impressive: 7,000 craftsmen participated in the work, the temple is 42 metres high, 94 metres wide and 106 metres high; there are 234 columns and 20,000 (!) statues. The sculptures depict Hindu deities, musicians, dancers and animals. Among them are 148 elephant figures located around the perimeter of the high plinth. The elephants alone weigh about 3,000 tonnes. The materials used were pink sandstone from Rajasthan (over 6,000 tonnes) and Carrara marble. The idea for the complex arose back in 1968, but construction only began in 2000. The complex also includes gardens, water bodies and open courtyards. In the interior, each of the nine domes has its own design. The abundance of small decorative elements and their planar interpretation reflect the influence of Islamic art (Muslim architecture in India deserves a separate discussion). Under the central dome is murti, as an image of Saint Swaminarayan (1781–1830) is called in Hinduism. Also known as Sahajanand Swami, he was a yogi and ascetic. Followers consider Swaminarayan to be one of the incarnations of Krishna. His murti in Akshardham is a statue over 3.3 metres tall. Around it are smaller scale statues of his followers.
If we compare the Lotus Temple and Akshardham, we see two different architectural trends. The minimalist Lotus Temple delicately visualizes the generalized image of spiritual quests, relying on modern technologies and architectural language. In contrast, Akshardham combines various traditions, creating a complex, visually rich appearance designed to amaze the imagination.
